Disturbance intensity plays an important role in influencing the structural and functional dynamics of ecosystems. The present study was undertaken in the tropical dry deciduous forests of Central India under varying disturbance intensities to understand their influence on structure, diversity and compositional attributes. In total, 242 rectangular plots of 0.5 ha each (50 m × 100 m) were laid in each 8 km2 grid for phytosociological analyses and assessment of disturbance factors and levels. The plots were categorized into four types based on the level of disturbance intensity: 0–20 % {undisturbed forest (UDF)}, 21–40 % {least disturbed forest (LDF)}, 41–60 % {moderately disturbed forest (MDF)} and >60 % {highly disturbed forest (HDF)}. Among the 242 plots, 48, 56, 72 and 66 plots come under UDF, LDF, MDF and HDF categories respectively. The predominant disturbance factors in HDF were fire and fuelwood collection, whereas in the case of MDF, grazing and cut stems were dominant. A total of 202 species (120 genera, 45 families) of adult trees (≥10 diameter at breast height (DBH)) were recorded across the disturbance intensity gradient, with highest species richness in UDF (175 species) and the lowest in HDF (145 species). A significant variation in the stand structure, species composition, richness and tree diversity (Shannon (H′) and Simpson (D) index) has been found across the disturbance intensity gradients. The plots with the highest disturbance intensity (HDF) had the significantly lowest tree density (p < 0.001), basal area (p < 0.001), species richness (p < 0.001), and tree diversity: H′ (p < 0.01), D (p < 0.01) than UDF, LDF and MDF intensity gradients. The diameter-class distribution showed high percentage of small-sized (11–30 cm) trees in UDF (68 %) and LDF (60 %), whereas the medium-sized trees (31–60 cm) were high in MDF (48 %) and HDF (53 %) respectively. The current findings highlight the profound impact of varying disturbance intensities on stand structure, composition and diversity, emphasizing an urgent need for restoration, protection, conservation, and sustainable management for long-term ecosystem services.

Tropical forests, known for their biodiversity and carbon (C) richness, face significant threats from biological invasions that disrupt structural and functional processes. Lantana camara (Family: Verbenaceae) is an invasive shrub that has spread across several Indian landscapes. The present study aimed to assess the changes in tree species richness and total ecosystem carbon (TEC) storage in Lantana camara-invaded (LI) and uninvaded (UI) sites in the tropical dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh, India. Significantly lower species richness (SR), C storage of juveniles, total trees, and total biomass C were observed in LI sites than in UI sites. However, significantly higher C storage of shrubs + herbs (understorey), litter, and soil organic carbon (SOC) were found in LI sites than in UI sites. The percent allocation of C in tree juveniles, adults, understorey, detritus, and SOC to the TEC pool was 2.6, 39.1, 1.4, 5.5, and 51.3 in LI sites and 3.8, 49.7, 0.2, 4.0 and 42.3 in UI sites, respectively. The C stocks of tree juveniles, adults, and herbs were lower by 23.3, 15.7 and 20.3%, respectively, in LI sites than in UI sites, whereas shrub, detritus, and SOC stocks were higher by 95.1, 9.1 and 7.9%, respectively, in LI sites than in UI sites. A significant negative relationship was observed between L. camara density and SR, tree juvenile C, herb C, understorey C, and total ecosystem C storage, while the same had a significant positive relationship with shrub C, litter C, and SOC. The present findings revealed that the plant diversity and total C pools were altered by shrub invasion and have important implications for their quantification in these tropical forests.

Managing forests requires an understanding of spatial patterns in the distribution of different species. However, species distributions are strongly influenced by variations in current and future climatic conditions. Species distribution models (SDMs) are usually used to determine current and potential distribution ranges, about multiple environmental factors that help to compare the changes/shifts in patterns of distribution under different climate change scenarios. SDMs often involve integrating field-sampled data with remotely sensed observations to generate prediction maps. Several models aid in predicting species distribution like generalized linear models (GLM), generalized additive models, random forests, maximum entropy (MaxEnt), artificial neural networks, etc. SDMs are a useful tool in forest management as they help in predicting tree occurrences, disease outbreaks, invasion zones, etc. This review focuses on the different applications of SDMs in forest management, constraints, and potential directions to avoid possible pitfalls.

Prioritizing native and endemic species for conservation is fundamental to achieve broader objectives of safeguarding biodiversity, as these species are vulnerable to extinction risks. Forecasting the climatic niche of these species through species distribution models can be crucial for their habitat conservation and sustainable management in future. In this study, an ensemble modelling approach was used to predict the distribution of Bergenia stracheyi, a native alpine plant species of Himalayan region. The results revealed that the distribution of B. stracheyi is primarily influenced by Annual Mean Temperature (Bio1) and Annual Precipitation (Bio12). Ensemble model predictions revealed that under the current climatic conditions, the suitable habitats for B. stracheyi are distributed across higher elevations of Jammu and Kashmir and future ensemble model predictions indicate that, across all future climatic scenarios, the majority of the currently suitable habitats will remain suitable for the species. The model predicts a significant expansion in suitable habitats for B. stracheyi, particularly under more severe climate change scenarios (RCP8.5). However, some areas currently identified as suitable, including parts of the Pir Panjal range and Mirpur (Pakistan), are projected to become unsuitable for the species in the future. These shifts in plant distribution may have far-reaching consequences for ecosystem functioning and stability and the services provided to human communities. Additionally, these shifts may lead to mismatches between the plant phenological events and pollinators potentially causing more ecological disruptions. Thus, the predicted range shifts in the distribution of B. stracheyi highlight the importance of local conservation measures to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Plant invasion has great potential to impact ecosystem structure and function. Here, we present a case study wherein we analyzed the influence of Lantana camara on soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in tropical forests of Madhya Pradesh. SOC stocks were measured at three depths in Lantana-invaded (LI) and uninvaded (UI) sites. Significantly, SOC was found to be altered by the invasion of Lantana, particularly at 0-10cm depth, and varied between 54.2 and 83.4 Mg C ha−1. The value of SOC stocks (mean) was 21.3, 26.5, and 23.3 Mg C ha−1 in LI sites and 17.8, 25.2, and 22.1 Mg C ha−1 in UI sites, respectively. On average, the percentage of SOC at three different depths was 30%, 37.3%, and 32.7% in LI and 27.3%, 38.7%, and 40% in UI sites, respectively. Soil pH and moisture were also higher in LI sites compared to UI at all the depths, whereas the bulk density was lower in LI compared to UI, sites and it increased significantly with the depth. This study reveals that the SOC stocks are influenced by invasion and would help to understand the impact of invasive plants on SOC pools in tropical forests and predict changes in ecosystem functioning.

Unraveling the mechanisms underlying the maintenance of species diversity is a central pursuit in ecology. It has been hypothesized that ectomycorrhizal (EcM) in contrast to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can reduce tree species diversity in local communities, which remains to be tested at the global scale. To address this gap, we analyzed global forest inventory data and revealed that the relationship between tree species richness and EcM tree proportion varied along environmental gradients. Specifically, the relationship is more negative at low latitudes and in moist conditions but is unimodal at high latitudes and in arid conditions. The negative association of EcM tree proportion on species diversity at low latitudes and in humid conditions is likely due to more negative plant-soil microbial interactions in these regions. These findings extend our knowledge on the mechanisms shaping global patterns in plant species diversity from a belowground view.

The conversion of coastal wetlands into aquaculture ponds is a common practice in South-East Asia, yet there lies a significant gap in analyzing its impacts on the delivery of ecosystem services. This study integrates multiple datasets to assess trade-offs in ecosystem services of a Ramsar wetland due to its conversion into aquaculture ponds in the coastal region of Indian peninsula. Local perceptions of ecosystem services and attitudes toward the Kolleru wetland were gathered using a standardized questionnaire, while land system changes from 1975 to 2023 were analyzed using Landsat imagery. The findings indicate that Kolleru wetland provides numerous ecosystem services ranging from local to global significance. The wetland functions as a vital habitat for migratory waterfowl including threatened species and serves as a natural buffer against floods and storm surges in the coastal area. Socioeconomic assessments revealed that the Kolleru wetland supports livelihoods by supplying fish, food, fodder, and medicinal plants. Chi-square (χ2) analysis showed that perceptions and attitudes are strongly influenced by educational background and patterns of resource use (χ2 = 4614.3, p =< 2.2e−16). The respondents perceived greater monetary benefits to fishponds (11488.5 million USD/yr) and paddy fields (0.58 million USD/yr) compared to the natural wetland. Nevertheless, the intact wetland delivers a variety of provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. Land use land cover analysis revealed a dramatic shift, with aquaculture expanding from 10% of the wetland area in 1990 to 57% in 2023. This transformation has led to significant trade-offs in ecosystem services, including habitat loss for migratory birds, disruption of water flow, and reduced flood storage capacity. The study emphasizes the need for effective management strategies that balance wetland conservation with the socioeconomic needs of local communities.

Podophyllum hexandrum is a globally endangered medicinal plant facing severe survival challenges. In the present study, habitat suitability modelling of P. hexandrum was carried out to identify potentially suitable habitats in the western Himalayas under current and future climatic scenarios using MaxEnt software. Future distribution modelling was carried out using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways; SSP126, SSP370 and SSP585 for the time period 2041–2070. MaxEnt output maps were categorized into four potential habitat suitability classes using threshold < 0.25 as “not suitable” 0.25–0.50 as “least suitable”, 0.51–0.75 as “moderately suitable”, and > 0.75 as “highly suitable”. Furthermore, overlay analysis was used to calculate loss, gain, and no change areas. Centroid migration direction and distance were also calculated. The model revealed that the precipitation amount of the driest month and mean annual air temperature determine the distribution of P. hexandrum. Under future climatic scenarios, the species is predicted to undergo significant changes in its distribution losing 8.12% and 8.25% of its suitable habitats under SSP370 and SSP585 pathways, respectively. Under SSP126 pathway, the species is predicted to gain an area of 1.63%. The species is predicted to shift southeastwards under all climatic scenarios and the distance of centroid migration will increase with an increased climate extremities. Though overlapping of its suitable habitats with Protected Areas plays an important role in conserving its wild populations. The decline in number of individuals due to habitat fragmentation, low rate of natural regeneration or seed germination and prolonged dormancy is still a serious concern. There is an urgent need to frame pertinent conservation and management policies for habitat restoration and reintroduction of this species, therefore, the present study will serve as a baseline in this direction.

Coastal wetland ecosystems make an important contribution to the global carbon pool, yet their extent is declining due to aquaculture-related land use changes. We conducted an extensive investigation into the carbon stock and area coverage of macrophytes in a tropical coastal Ramsar wetland, Kolleru in Andhra Pradesh, India. A total of 72 quadrats of size 1 × 1 m2 were laid in the wetland, 19 species of macrophytes were collected and analyzed for carbon content using a CNHS analyzer. To assess changes in the wetland macrophytes, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was estimated using Landsat time series data from 1975 to 2023. The importance value index (IVI) of macrophytes scored highest for the Ipomoea aquatica (41.4) and the lowest for Ottelia alismoides (1.9). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) significantly (r = 0.1905, p = 0.0361) revealed a clear separation of macrophytes in ordination space. ANOVA indicated highly significant (p < 0.0001) variations in the carbon content of aboveground and belowground components of macrophytes. Among the different macrophytes, the highest carbon content was found in Phragmites karka (0.6 g. g−1) and the lowest was recorded in Utricularia stellaris (0.2 g. g−1). On an average, emergents in the Kolleru wetland sequester 1525 ± 181 g C m−2 yr−1, rooted floating species sequester 858 ± 101 g C m−2 yr−1, submerged macrophytes sequester 480 ± 60 g C m−2 yr−1, and free-floating macrophytes sequester 221 ± 90 g C m−2 yr−1. Land cover mapping revealed a decrease in spread of aquatic vegetation from 225.2 km2 in 1975 to 100.6 km2 in 2023. Although macrophytes are vital carbon sinks, the wetland conversion into fishponds has resulted in a loss of 55.3 % of carbon storage. Therefore, immediate restoration of macrophyte cover is vital for the proper functioning of carbon sequestration and mitigation of climate change impacts.

Valuation of ecosystem services along with the perceptions and attitudes of local communities is crucial for sustainable management of wetlands. This study assesses changes in wetland area and bathymetry, and provides insights into local community's perceptions of ecosystem services, and attitudes towards wetland conservation in Kashmir Himalaya, India. High-resolution satellite data was used to assess land use land cover (LULC) changes within the wetland. The bathymetry changes were assessed by performing depth measurements before and after dredging in 2019 and 2022, respectively. Perceptions of ecosystem services and attitudes of residents towards wetland management were examined through surveys in 182 households from the target population of 334 families. The findings reveal that Khushalsar wetland provides important provisioning (food, fodder, thatching mats, fish, vegetables), regulating (flood control, carbon sequestration, water quality improvement), supporting (habitat, biomass and oxygen production, water and nutrient cycling), and cultural services (aesthetic, education, spiritual). The economic benefits from provisioning services range from 240 USD/yr for minor vegetables to 1201–1802 USD/0.05 ha/yr for Nelumbo nucifera. The analysis of LULC changes indicates a ∼16.5% reduction in wetland area from 1980 to 2017, with a further ∼10% decrease from 2017 to 2021, resulting in an overall loss of ∼25% (27.1 ha) in wetland area from 1980 to 2021. Bathymetric assessments reveal an increase in maximum depth from 427 cm in 2019 to 547 cm in 2022 following dredging activities. Socioeconomic analysis showed the significance of Khushalsar wetland as an important source of livelihood for local communities. Survey results indicate that all the respondents have positive attitudes towards the protection and management of the Khushalsar wetland. The study demonstrates that human conservation activities have significantly contributed to positive changes in the wetland such as increase in depth and flood storage capacity. The study concludes that government protection along with active participation of local communities is indispensable for sustainable management of wetlands.

Aim: We used an eco-phylogenetic approach to investigate the diversity and assembly patterns of tropical dry forests (TDFs) in Central India. We aimed at informing conservation and restoration practices in these anthropogenically disturbed forests by identifying potential habitats of conservation significance and elements of regional biodiversity most vulnerable to human impact and climate change. Location: Tropical dry forests of Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Methods: We analysed the species richness, stem density, basal area and phylogenetic structure (standardized effect size of MNTD, MPD, PD and community evolutionary distinctiveness cED) of 117 tree species assemblages distributed across a ~230 to ~940 m elevational gradient. We examined how these community measures and taxonomic (Sørensen) and phylogenetic (UniFrac) beta diversity varied with elevation, precipitation, temperature and climatic stress. Results: Species richness, phylogenetic diversity, stem density and basal area were positively correlated with elevation, with high-elevation plots exhibiting cooler temperatures, higher precipitation and lower stress. High-elevation assemblages also trended towards greater phylogenetic dispersion, which diminished at lower elevations and in drier, more stressful plots. Phylogenetic turnover was observed across the elevation gradient, and species evolutionary distinctiveness increased at lower elevations and under harsher abiotic conditions. Main Conclusions: Harsher abiotic conditions at low elevations may act as a selective filter on plant lineages, leading to phylogenetically clustered low-diversity assemblages. These assemblages contained more evolutionarily distinct species that may contribute disproportionately to biodiversity. Conversely, milder abiotic conditions at high elevations may serve as refuges for drought-sensitive species, resulting in more diverse assemblages. Conservation practices that prioritize both high- and low-elevation habitats could promote the persistence of evolutionarily distinct species and areas of high biodiversity within the Central Indian landscape. Establishing connectivity between these habitats may provide a range of climatic conditions for species to retreat to or persist within as climates change.

Rising global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations has been a major driver of global climate change. In response, several parties to the Paris Agreement have pledged to achieve “carbon neutrality” where CO2 emissions are balanced by various CO2 removal activities. Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 by trees and locking it in different pools (live biomass, detritus, wood products and soil) is widely seen as an easy, cost-effective strategy that would lead to carbon neutrality. Together with attractive carbon incentives, this strategy has led to the mushrooming of several tree plantation projects all over the world. The carbon sequestration potential of a plantation depends upon several factors like species planted, site history, climate, and management practices. While well-planned tree plantations would enable the harvesting of environmental and socioeconomic benefits, ill-conceived tree planting initiatives may turn into an environmental disaster. Prior risk assessments and adoption of an integrated approach in tree plantations would help in reducing the uncertainties and achieving the desired targets. Diversified climate action plans which also include tree plantation as an integral component are necessary to achieve carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation goals.

The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) is one of the most recognized global patterns of species richness exhibited across a wide range of taxa. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed in the past two centuries to explain LDG, but rigorous tests of the drivers of LDGs have been limited by a lack of high-quality global species richness data. Here we produce a high-resolution (0.025° × 0.025°) map of local tree species richness using a global forest inventory database with individual tree information and local biophysical characteristics from ~1.3 million sample plots. We then quantify drivers of local tree species richness patterns across latitudes. Generally, annual mean temperature was a dominant predictor of tree species richness, which is most consistent with the metabolic theory of biodiversity (MTB). However, MTB underestimated LDG in the tropics, where high species richness was also moderated by topographic, soil and anthropogenic factors operating at local scales. Given that local landscape variables operate synergistically with bioclimatic factors in shaping the global LDG pattern, we suggest that MTB be extended to account for co-limitation by subordinate drivers.

Lantana camara (hereafter Lantana) is a highly noxious invasive weed species of global concern. However, its impacts on floristic and soil properties in tropical dry deciduous forests are elusive and fragmented. We aimed to assess the changes in the flora and soil properties following the invasion by Lantana in Central Indian forest ecosystems. Three study sites were selected, and each site was further divided into two subsites: Lantana-invaded (LI) and uninvaded (UI). In total, 60 plots of 0.25 ha each (10 plots in each subsite) were laid randomly. Within each plot, floristic structure, composition, diversity, soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total nitrogen (STN), moisture (M%), pH, and bulk density (BD) were assessed. Lantana-invaded sites showed a significant decrease in density (D), basal area (BA), species richness (SR), and evenness (E) of saplings (<3 cm diameter at breast height [DBH]), juveniles (between 3 and 9.9 cm DBH), and herbs. In LI sites, a reduction of 57% and 25% was observed in lower DBH class of trees (saplings and juveniles). In all the LI sites, significant increase in SOC, STN, and M%, and a significant decrease in pH were recorded. Lantana may greatly impact the vegetation and soil properties, and successively, these strong changes may increase its invasive potential and ability to replace native species by averting their natural regeneration potential. Therefore, a proper management strategy of this noxious weed is imperative to prevent its further expansion and future problems.

Sacred groves (SGs) play an important role in the conservation of local biodiversity and provide numerous ecosystem services worldwide. We studied how the ecological status of Central Indian SGs contributes to regional tree diversity and carbon (C) storage. We inventoried the trees in fifty-nine SGs of Madhya Pradesh and recorded a total of 109 tree species (90 genera, 40 families). The most species-rich families were Fabaceae, Combretaceae, Malvaceae, and Moraceae. The tree density ranged from 75 to 925 individuals ha−1 (mean: 398 ± 32 individuals ha−1), while basal area varied from 2.5 to 69.2 m2 ha−1 (mean: 24.2 ± 1.9 m2 ha−1). The total C stock {tree C + soil organic C (SOC; 0–30 cm)} ranged from 44.7 to 455.4 Mg C ha−1 (mean: 153.8 ± 9.6 Mg C ha−1) across the SGs. The studied SGs represented 74.7% of the total tree diversity and contained 33.1% higher total C stock than the forests of the state. Tree C stock was significantly positively correlated with tree basal area, distance from the nearest village, and number of years of existence. The present study highlights the crucial role of SGs in sustaining regional biodiversity and storing C in biomass and soil. Continued conservation efforts and contained interventions by people are necessary in order to maintain the current role of these SGs as biodiversity and carbon reservoirs of Central India.

Diversity, stand structure and regeneration potential are the key elements of any forest ecosystem. For the present study, seven sites were selected with the aims of assessing plant diversity, structure and regeneration potential in tropical forests across Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS), Western Ghats, India. The sites were classified based on the similarity: tropical dry deciduous sites (TDDs I and II), tropical semi-evergreen sites (TSEs I and II) and tropical evergreen sites (TEFs I-III). The phytosociological survey was done by laying a total of 70 plots (10 plots in each study site). Standard methods were followed for the assessment of diversity, structure and regeneration patterns. A total of 267 species (205 genera, 70 families) were recorded. The tree species richness ranged 24 (TDD II) - 76 (TEF III). Of the vegetation spectrum, trees, vines and understorey accounted 56.5, 15.3 and 28.2% respectively to the total flora documented. A total of 66 species were endemic. The total tree density and tree basal area (seedlings, saplings, juveniles and adults) were 18,790 individuals (mean 2684) and 137.6 m2 (mean 19.7 m2) in 70 plots respectively. The mean tree adult density and basal area ranged 370 (TDD I) - 900 (TEF I) individuals/ha and 24.2 (TDD I) - 75.3 (TEF III) m2/ha respectively. The overall species richness was highest in TDD I, but TEF III had the highest tree species richness. The diameter class-wise distribution showed the characteristic 'reverse J-shaped' curve. Most tree species were 'newly recruited'. The dominant species had 'fair' to 'good' regeneration potential. However, 12 tree species showed 'no' regeneration. The overall regeneration pattern of trees was 'good', but 'no' or 'poor' regeneration patterns in some tree species, especially endemics is a point of concern. Since a majority of tree species were 'new recruits', species composition may likely change in the future. The results obtained would help in understanding diversity patterns, structural attributes and regeneration potential in tropical forests of protected areas for better forest management and conservation.

The current study analyzes the tree diversity and regeneration status of species between repeated forest fires and unburned areas of the tropical dry deciduous forest of Panna Tiger Reserve (PTR), Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Fire frequency maps were prepared with the help of Landsat 5, 7, and 8 satellite images, and the study area was classified into seven fire frequency classes (B1 to B7) and one control class (B0). Five plots were laid in every fire class including the control. A total of 45 tree species belonging to 33 genera and 20 families were recorded during the study period and of these, 44, 26, and 25 species were recorded in the three-growth stages: trees, saplings, and seedlings, respectively. Of the 7873 individuals recorded, 2667, 1243, and 3963 were seedlings, saplings, and trees, respectively. Our results showed that tree species diversity was higher at moderate fire frequencies than controls, but decreased with increasing fire frequency classes. Regeneration of species was significantly different among all fire frequency classes. Certain fire-tolerant species were increasingly dominant with increasing fire frequency classes. With fires left to continue unabated, the dry deciduous forest of the Central Indian region could have lower tree diversity in the future.

The rapid alteration in the global climate due to anthropogenic activities has profound eco-biological impacts, which invariably affect the ability of natural communities to effectively perform ecosystem services. The eco-biological impacts could be viewed across various dimensions including loss of biodiversity as well as ecosystem goods and services, changes in phenology, prevalence of droughts and forest fires, disease outbreaks, reduced crop yields and increase in intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. Although, the natural ecosystems are innately endowed with the ability to maintain homeostasis by means of resistance and resilience, this ability to cope up is severely impacted by various other factors like deforestation, habitat fragmentation, land-use change and biological invasion, which exacerbate the effects of climate change. The eco-biological impacts of climate change are tied with socio-economic aspects by means of market values of the produce, poverty, undernourishment, livelihood security, etc. At this crucial juncture, forest biomes offer an immense ecosystem service towards climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration. Nevertheless, the three major forest biomes, viz. tropical, temperate and boreal, with their unique characteristics, vary in their response to climate change as well as mitigation potential and response. This review chapter aims to understand the varied climate change impacts and the crucial roles of major forest biomes in climate change mitigation and their various ecological services to formulate better forest management strategies.

Tropical forests are rich in biodiversity with great potential for carbon (C) storage. We estimated ecosystem-level C stock using data from 70 forest plots in three major forest types: tropical dry deciduous (TDD I and TDD II), tropical semi-evergreen (TSE I and TSE II) and tropical evergreen forests (TEF I, TEF II and TEF III) of Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India. The average C stock in these forests was 336.8 Mg C/ha, of which 231.3, 3.0, 2.4, 15.2 and 84.9 Mg C/ha were stored in woody vegetation, understorey, litter, deadwood and soil respectively. The live vegetation, detritus and soil contributed 65.5%, 5.5% and 29% respectively to the total ecosystem-level C stock and distributed in forest types in the order: TEF III > TEF II > TEF I > TSE I > TDD II > TSE II > TDD I. The plant diversity, structural attributes and environmental factors showed significant positive correlations with C stocks and accounted for 6.7, 77.2 and 16% of variance. These findings indicate that the tropical forests in the Western Ghats store large amount of C, and resulting data are invaluable for planning and monitoring forest conservation and management programs to enhance C storage in tropical forests.

Variation in tree biomass and carbon (C) stocks in tropical dry forests is important at both regional and global scale to know their contribution in global C cycle. In Indian tropical forests, the information on variation in tree biomass and C stocks at forest type level is scarce and fragmented. In the present study, three tropical dry deciduous forest types: dry deciduous teak forest (DDTF), dry deciduous mixed forest (DDMF) and Boswellia forest (BF) have been selected in Madhya Pradesh, Central India, to assess the biomass and C stocks. The total tree biomass (aboveground + belowground) ranged from 70.4 (DDTF) to 296.6 (BF) Mg/ha with a mean of 184.1 Mg/ha, whereas the tree C ranged from 35.3 (DDTF) to 140.9 (BF) Mg C/ha with a mean value of 87.4 Mg C/ha. The greatest biomass (220.4 Mg/ha) and C stocks (104.7 Mg C/ha) have been observed in BF type, whereas the least biomass (160.9 Mg/ha) and C (76.4 Mg C/ha) have been observed in DDTF type, with the mean biomass and C stock values of 184.1 Mg/ha and 87.4 Mg C/ha, respectively. In both DDTF and DDMF types, Tectona grandis contributed 76.5 and 26.4% of C, whereas in BF type, Boswellia serrata contributed 73.6% of C to the total C stock. A significant positive (R2 = 0.951; p < 0.01) relationship has been observed between basal area and tree C stock. The present study would improve our understanding of C stocks present in these forest types and could be used to enhance the C sequestration potential through conservation, monitoring and management of such forests.

Tropical forests are the richest biodiversity hotspots and are under immense natural and anthropogenic pressures that lead to biodiversity loss. One such cause is alien plant invasion that alters the native forest stand structure and composition and disrupts the vital ecosystem functions. Central India, which mainly spans across the three states, viz. Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and some parts of Maharashtra, is well-known for its sprawling tropical deciduous forests, which are also no less immune to the present-day pressures, including the plant invasion. Alien invasive plants arrive via several pathways and possess unique traits that help them to surpass the barriers in the new habitats, where many influentialfactors might operate upon them. Once established, they may profoundly impact the invaded ecosystem. Most of the studies from Central India have been focused on floristics, forest structure, impact of disturbances, etc., and relatively few studies have addressed plant invasion. Overall, there are 179 invasive taxa in Central India, mostly from the Asteraceae (17.3%) and Fabaceae (14.5%) families. Majority of them are from Tropical America (52%), and most are herbs (69%). An outline of the most common top ten Central Indian invaders has been presented. Climate change might influence invasive plants, and constant monitoring and modelling is required to understand invasive species dynamics for effective management. Invasive alien species are to be tended with extreme caution and smart and novel approaches of putting them to use might help in better management for controlling them. This review will also provide a conceptual basis for improving our general understanding on invasive species and their impact on tropical forest ecosystems.

Sequestration of atmospheric carbon-dioxide in biospheric carbon (C) pools is a key strategy towards climate change mitigation. Soil is a huge C reservoir and its storage potential varies greatly with forest types. Therefore, in the present study, the soil organic carbon (SOC) storage pattern was assessed from 70 plots laid at three selected forest types comprising seven study sites at Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India: tropical dry deciduous (TDD I and TDD II), tropical semi-evergreen (TSE I and TSE II) and tropical evergreen forest (TEF I, TEF II and TEF III) at three depths (0–10, 10.1–20 and 20.1–30 cm). Statistical analyses were performed to understand the relationships between SOC stocks with other predictor variables. The SOC stock varied markedly with forest type and site-wise. The SOC ranged from 58 (TEF III) to 123.6 (TDD I) Mg C/ha with a mean of 84.9 ± 4.4 Mg C/ha at 0–30 cm depth. SOC stock decreased, while soil bulk density increased with increase in soil depth. The TDD forest type (115.6 Mg C/ha) stocked the highest SOC compared to TEF (75.1 Mg C/ha) and TSE (68.9 Mg C/ha) forest types. Of the total SOC stock (0–30 cm), 44.2, 32.0 and 23.8% were stored in 0–10, 10.1–20 and 20.1–30 cm respectively in all the forest types. In contrast, litter C stock were high in TEF and TSE forest types and low in TDD forest type. SOC showed significant (P < 0.01) negative relationships with bulk density, litter C, and vegetation attributes. The SOC stock stored in the study sites amount to 212.9 (TEF III) to 453.6 (TDD I) Mg of CO2 equivalents. The present study reveals that forest type and site characteristics have a profound impact on SOC stock, which would, in turn, exert a great bearing on the ecosystem C cycling. These results would also enhance our ability to evaluate the role of these forest types in soil C sequestration and for developing and validating SOC models for tropical forest ecosystems.

Sacred groves are small or large patches of forest and are rich in biodiversity, store carbon (C) in biomass and soil, besides providing important ecosystem services. However, the information on tree species diversity, biomass, and C storage in sacred groves of Central India, Madhya Pradesh is elusive and fragmented. In the present study, 41 sacred groves were inventoried for tree species diversity, biomass, and C storage in vegetation and soil. A total of 103 tree species from 81 genera belonging to 37 families were recorded. Shannon’s diversity, Dominance, Fisher’s alpha, and species evenness indices for trees varied: 0.77–2.53, 0.07–0.64, 1.58–20.37, and 0.28–0.90 respectively. Tree density ranged 75–675 no. of stems ha−1 with a mean of 271 no. of stems ha−1, while basal area ranged 6.8–47 m2 ha−1 with a mean value of 27 m2 ha−1. Tree biomass ranged 34.9–409.8 Mg ha−1 with a mean value of 194.01 Mg ha−1, while, tree C ranged between 17.5 and 204.9 Mg C ha−1 with a mean value of 97.0 Mg C ha−1. The total soil organic carbon stock (0–30 cm) ranged from 22.4 to 112.5 Mg C ha−1 with the mean value of 62 Mg C ha−1. Biomass C and SOC contributed 61% and 39% of the total C stocks, respectively. Tree C stock showed a significant positive relationship with tree basal area (R2 = 0.968). A total of five tree species belonging to four families were found to be vulnerable in Central India. The present study reveals that the sacred groves of Central India are species rich, have higher C stocks and sequestration potential in both vegetation and soil, and calls for an immediate attention for conservation and planning for long-term C sequestration.

An accurate characterization of the seasonal and inter-annual variability of agricultural residue burning in tropics is needed to devise strategies to control or minimize substantial amounts of particulate matter and pollutants released to the atmosphere through the burning of agricultural residues. The present study quantifies the spatiotemporal changes in agricultural residue burning in Madhya Pradesh, India. In this study, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data on the occurrence of fire over a period of 15 years (2002–2016) was used to characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of agricultural residue burning in Central India. Overall, there was an increasing trend of fire occurrence, which increased from 1268 in 2002 to 7915 in 2016. Most of these fires were in croplands (48.1%) followed by deciduous broadleaf forests (36%). Cropland fires were increased almost 10-fold from 454 in 2002 to 4359 in 2016 at an average annual rate of 64%. The agricultural residue fires were high in Rabi harvesting period (March to May), as compared to that in Kharif harvesting period (October to December). The present study indicates an increased agricultural residue burning activity in the Madhya Pradesh and needs an immediate attention and develop sustainable alternative methods for crop residue management. The present study also suggests that Modis can be used for long-term assessment of small fires. We recommend ploughing of agricultural residues into the soil as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to the burning of crop residues.

Forest biomass pools are the major reservoirs of atmospheric carbon in both coniferous and broad-leaved forest ecosystems and thus play an important role in regulating the regional and global carbon cycle. In this study, we measured the biomass of trees, understorey, and detritus in temperate (coniferous and broad-leaved) forests of Kashmir Himalaya. Total ecosystem dry biomass averaged 234.2 t/ha (ranging from 99.5 to 305.2 t/ha) across all the forest stands, of which 223 t/ha (91.9–283.2 t/ha) were stored in above- and below-ground biomass of trees, 1.3 t/ha (0.18–3.3 t/ha) in understorey vegetation (shrubs and herbaceous), and 9.9 t/ha (4.8–20.9 t/ha) in detritus (including standing and fallen dead trees, and forest floor litter). Among all the forests, the highest tree, understorey, and detritus biomass were observed in mid-altitude Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana coniferous forests, whereas the lowest were observed in high-altitude Betula utilis broad-leaved forests. Basal area has showed significant positive relationship with biomass (R2 = 0.84–0.97, P < 0.001) and density (R2 = 0.49–0.87). The present study will improve our understanding of distribution of biomass (trees, understorey, and detritus) in coniferous and broad-leaved forests and can be used in forest management activities to enhance C sequestration.

Plant biodiversity patterns were analyzed in seven temperate forest types [Populus deltoides (PD), Juglans regia, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, mixed coniferous, Abies pindrow (AP) and Betula utilis (BU)] of Kashmir Himalaya. A total of 177 plant species (158 genera, 66 families) were recorded. Most of the species are herbs (82.5%), while shrubs account for 9.6% and trees represent 7.9%. Species richness ranged from 24 (PD) to 96 (AP). Shannon, Simpson, and Fisher α indices varied: 0.17–1.06, 0.46–1.22, and 2.01–2.82 for trees; 0.36–0.94, 0.43–0.75, and 0.08–0.35 for shrubs; and 0.35–1.41, 0.27–0.95, and 5.61–39.98 for herbs, respectively. A total of five species were endemic. The total stems and basal area of trees were 35,794 stems (stand mean 330 stems/ha) and 481.1 m2 (stand mean 40.2 m2/ha), respectively. The mean density and basal area ranged from 103 stems/ha (BU) to 1,201 stems/ha (PD), and from 19.4 m2/ha (BU) to 51.9 m2/ha (AP), respectively. Tree density decreased with increase in diameter class. A positive relationship was obtained between elevation and species richness and between elevation and evenness (R2 = 0.37 and 0.19, respectively). Tree and shrub communities were homogenous in nature across the seven forest types, while herbs showed heterogeneous distribution pattern.

An accurate characterization of tree, understory, deadwood, floor litter, and soil organic carbon (SOC) pools in temperate forest ecosystems is important to estimate their contribution to global carbon (C) stocks. However, this information on temperate forests of the Himalayas is lacking and fragmented. In this study, we measured C stocks of tree (aboveground and belowground biomass), understory (shrubs and herbaceous), deadwood (standing and fallen trees and stumps), floor litter, and soil from 111 plots of 50 m × 50 m each, in seven forest types: Populus deltoides (PD), Juglans regia (JR), Cedrus deodara (CD), Pinus wallichiana (PW), mixed coniferous (MC), Abies pindrow (AP), and Betula utilis (BU) in temperate forests of Kashmir Himalaya, India. The main objective of the present study is to quantify the ecosystem C pool in these seven forest types. The results showed that the tree biomass ranged from 100.8 Mg ha−1 in BU forest to 294.8 Mg ha−1 for the AP forest. The understory biomass ranged from 0.16 Mg ha−1 in PD forest to 2.36 Mg ha−1 in PW forest. Deadwood biomass ranged from 1.5 Mg ha−1 in PD forest to 14.9 Mg ha−1 for the AP forest, whereas forest floor litter ranged from 2.5 Mg ha−1 in BU and JR forests to 3.1 Mg ha−1 in MC forest. The total ecosystem carbon stocks varied from 112.5 to 205.7 Mg C ha−1 across all the forest types. The C stocks of tree, understory, deadwood, litter, and soil ranged from 45.4 to 135.6, 0.08 to 1.18, 0.7 to 6.8, 1.1 to 1.4, and 39.1–91.4 Mg ha−1, respectively, which accounted for 61.3, 0.2, 1.4, 0.8, and 36.3 % of the total carbon stock. BU forest accounted 65 % from soil C and 35 % from biomass, whereas PD forest contributed only 26 % from soil C and 74 % from biomass. Of the total C stock in the 0–30-cm soil, about 55 % was stored in the upper 0–10 cm. Soil C stocks in BU forest were significantly higher than those in other forests. The variability of C pools of different ecosystem components is influenced by vegetation type, stand structure, management history, and altitude. Our results reveal that a higher percentage (63 %) of C is stored in biomass and less in soil in these temperate forests except at the higher elevation broad-leaved BU forest. Results from this study will enhance our ability to evaluate the role of these forests in regional and global C cycles and have great implications for planning strategies for conservation. The study provides important data for developing and validating C cycling models for temperate forests.

Soil organic carbon stocks were measured at three depths (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) in seven altitudes dominated by different forest types viz. Populus deltoides, 1550–1800 m; Juglans regia, 1800–2000 m; Cedrus deodara, 2050–2300 m; Pinus wallichiana, 2000–2300 m; mixed type, 2200–2400 m; Abies pindrow, 2300–2800 m; and Betula utilis, 2800–3200 m in temperate mountains of Kashmir Himalayas. The mean range of soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks varied from 39.07 to 91.39 Mg C ha−1 in J. regia and B. utilis forests at 0–30 cm depth, respectively. Among the forest types, the lowest mean range of SOC at three depths (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) was observed in J. regia (18.55, 11.31, and 8.91 Mg C ha−1, respectively) forest type, and the highest was observed in B. utilis (54.10, 21.68, and 15.60 Mg C ha−1, respectively) forest type. SOC stocks showed significantly (R2 = 0.67, P = 0.001) an increasing trend with increase in altitude. On average, the percentages of SOC at 0–10-, 10–20-, and 20–30-cm depths were 53.2, 26.5, and 20.3 %, respectively. Bulk density increased significantly with increase in soil depth and decreased with increase in altitude. Our results suggest that SOC stocks in temperate forests of Kashmir Himalaya vary greatly with forest type and altitude. The present study reveals that SOC stocks increased with increase in altitude at high mountainous regions. Climate change in these high mountainous regions will alter the carbon sequestration potential, which would affect the global carbon cycle.

Soil CO2 efflux was measured in four different coniferous forest types (Cedrus deodara (CD), Pinus wallichiana (PW), mixed coniferous (MC), and Abies pindrow (AP)) for a period of 2 years (April 2012 to December 2013). The monthly soil CO2 efflux ranged from 0.8 to 4.1 μmoles CO2 m−2 s−1 in 2012 and 1.01 to 5.48 μmoles CO2 m−2 s−1 in 2013. The soil CO2 efflux rate was highest in PW forest type in both the years, while it was lowest in MC and CD forest types during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Soil temperature (TS) at a depth of 10 cm ranged from 3.8 to 19.4 °C in 2012 and 3.5 to 19.1 °C in 2013 in all the four forest types. Soil moisture (MS) ranged from 19.8 to 58.6 % in 2012 and 18.5 to 58.6 % in 2013. Soil CO2 efflux rate was found to be significantly higher in summer than the other seasons and least during winter. Soil CO2 efflux showed a significant positive relationship with TS (R2 = 0.52 to 0.74), SOC % (R2 = 0.67), pH (R2 = 0.68), and shrub biomass (R2 = 0.51), whereas, only a weak positive relationship was found with soil moisture (R2 = 0.16 to 0.41), tree density (R2 = 0.25), tree basal area (R2 = 0.01), tree biomass (R2 = 0.07), herb biomass (R2 = 0.01), and forest floor litter (R2 = 0.02). Thus, the study indicates that soil CO2 efflux in high mountainous areas is greatly influenced by seasons, soil temperature, and other environmental factors.

Neotectonics provide a valuable tool to infer the recent crustal disturbances and structural verge of the terrain. The Himalayas,a seismo-tectonically active mountain chain shows its higher rates of uplifting (10 mm/yr.) and varieties of neotectonic activities with changing seismic patterns. The sub-Himalayan part of Kashmir is comprised of sedimentary strata with several complicated structural architectures. Among various approaches to understand tectonic instability of the Himalaya the Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) approach is considered to be one of the most feasible tools to predict the dynamics of the evolving landforms an evidence of neotectonic activities. Therefore, an attempt ismade to apply Remote Sensing and GIS as a tool to analyze and interpret multi-spectral images in understanding various structural features of the Kashmir basin, India. For the purpose Landsat Thematic Mapper (Landsat-TM) multi-spectral images were analyzed with their spatial and attribute characteristics to deduce the neotectonism of the area. The results of the study reveal the three principal patterns of stream networks viz., dendritic, parallel and rectangular. Moreover, the streams of the basin show critical changes in stream from braided to meandering stages and vice-versa. The higher value of bifurcation ratios of streams towards south-western zone indicates the activation of the faults traversed in the area. In view of these parameters the basin signifies the intense deformation along the southern morphotectonic zone affecting the overall morphology of the basin. © 2013 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY.

Climate change is an occurring phenomenon that creates extreme weather patterns and global warming. These extreme weather patterns and global warming have a direct negative impact on infectious diseases, especially vector-borne infectious diseases. Malaria is one of the vector-borne infectious diseases that are particularly affected by climate change as it is extremely sensitive to meteorological conditions. This extreme sensitivity is creating a resurgence and redistribution of the malaria vector, the mosquito. This resurgence and redistribution of the mosquito puts an extra pressure on the public health system, especially the public health Infrastructure of a developing country. An integrated framework assessment is needed for the public sector to determine the risks of climate change on infectious diseases. Infectious disease may not have affected most developed countries as they have their impact on developing countries, but with climate change this dynamics is rapidly shifting and must be addressed. The key to the integrated framework assessment is the understanding that infectious diseases have multiple determinants that are not just biological, but ecological, sociological, and epidemiological. This paper assesses the climate change impacts on vector-borne infectious diseases. A framework is necessary for the public health sector to determine the risks of epidemics in different demographics and geographic regions. Malaria is an interesting vector-borne disease as it brings up the issue of developing countries versus developed countries.